THE START OF THE MODERN AGE. THE 15th AND THE 16th CENTURIES.

1. THE MODERN AGE.

1. 1. A new historical period.

The Modern Age is the historical period from the 15th to the 18th century. Usually is considered that the Modern Age started with the the fall of Byzantium (1453) or the discovery of America (1492) and ended with the French Revolution (1789). We can distinguish three subperiods:

• Renaissance (in spanish, renacimiento) period: 16th century.
• Barroque period: 17th century.
• The Enlightenment (in spanish are widely used the terms siglo de las luces or Ilustración): 18th century.

1. 2. Changes in the 15th and 16th centuries.

From the middle of the 15th century to the end of the 16th century Europe suffered deep transformations that affected all areas of life:

• The international situation changed due three significant events:

1. The disappearance of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Ottoman Empire that threatened the Western Chritianity.
2. The geographical discoveries of the Spain and the Portugal which established extensive colonial empires in America, Asia and Europe, stimulating world trade.
3. The establishment of the Spanish hegemony in Europe during the 16th century.

• The crisis of the feudal system due to several factors:

1. The desaparition of the feudal kingdoms and its subtitution by the modern States, in which the monarchs ruled over nobility and city governments.
2. The rise of the commercial capitalism based in the accumulation of money through trade and colonisation
3. The growing importance of the bourgoisie.

•  Western religious unity collapsed due to the Protestant Reformation and gave rise to a number of serious armed conflicts.
• Medieval culture was replaced by a new world view, Humanism, which was focused in human beings.

The Ottoman Empire at the end of the 15th century. Its expansion threatened Christian Europe.

2. THE DISCOVERIES.

The exploration of new geographical spaces by the europeans was the result of several types of causes:

• Political. The monarchs of the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula continued their expansion after the fall of Granada in order to obtain gold and silver and consolidate their power.
• Economic. After the fall of Constantinople the trade routes to Asia were closed and was necessary to establish new trade routes to bring spices and luxury products from Asia (silk, precious stones) and slaves and gold from Africa.
• Scientific. At this moment, was believed that the Earth is much smaller that it really is, as a rsult, saliors considered it feasible to reach India or China by sailing westwards.
• Technical causes. Sea navigation improved due to several advances:

1. the compass that allowed to check the direction of th ship when out of sea.
2. the astrolabe enabled them to use the stars to measure distances and to check the ship's altitude.
3. the cartography enabled ships to navigate without needing to keep the coast in sight.
4. a new type of ship caravel which was able to stand the higher waves of the atlantic ocean.

• Religious the peninsular kingdoms looked for allies against the muslims and believed in the legend of the kingdom of the Preste John, located in Africa and surrounded by infidels.
• Ideological. Humanism was interested in cheking the veracity of ancient texts and ancient mathematical methods.

3. THE DISCOVERIES (II). JOURNEYS AND TRAVELLERS. 

3. 1. The portuguese explorations.

Portugal, started the exploration oft the African coast, from the mid-15th century,: due to factors:

•  the prince Henry the Navigator, who encouraged the development of navigation skills.
• the Treaty of Alcacovas (1479) which finished the conflict with Castille. The teatry granted the Canary Islands to Castille, whereas Portugal was recognised the right to explore the African coast south Cabo Bojador.

Treaty of Alcacovas, granted the Canary Islands to Castille, but recognised to Portugal the right to explore the african coast south of the Cape Bojador. File: Macaronesia.png. Hidra92. CC BY-SA 3.0

As a result of these journey, Portugal:

• occupied the Madeira, Azores, and Cape Verde Archipielagos.
• reached Cape Bojador and the Gulf of Guinea.
• Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape Good Hope in 1487.
• Vasco de Gama reached India in 1498.

 As a consequence, the portuguese built forts along the african coast to monopolise the silk trade with China and the slave and gold trade.

The voyage of Vasco de Gama. Fichier: Gama route 1 FR.png https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Feydey

 3. 2. Castille. The discovery of America.

America was discovered by Christopher Columbus (in spanish Cristobal Colón), a genovese sailor who believed that was possible to reach India sailing westward across the Atlantic, because he though that the Earth is smaller than really is.
 His project was rejected by the king of Portugal, but accepted by the Catholic Monarchs in the Capitulations of Santa Fe (1492). The capitulations named Colon Admiral of the Ocean Sea and Viceroy of the discovered lands.
Columbus set sail with three boats from the port of Palos and after a scale in the Canary Islands reached the caribbean island of Guanahani, which he renamed San Salvador) on 12 October 1492. He returned three to times to America before his death in 1506.
The new lands were called Indias, because he though that he had reached South East Asia and their inhabitans were called Indians.

 3. 3. Sharing out the world.

In 1493, the Pope Alexander VI, signed the Papal Bull Inter Caetera, granting sovereignity over the new lands to the Catholic Monarchs, but Portugal rejected it.
To avoid a conflict, Portugal and Spain signed the Teatry of Tordesillas (1494), in which the areas of influence of the two countries were established. Portugal would recieve all the new lands located to the east of a line 370 leagues to the west of Cape Verde, whereas Castille would recieve all the lands located to the west of the line. Because of this, Portugal was able to claim the possesion of Brazil.

During the 16th century, the Spanish kings sent new expeditions to explore these new lands:

• In 1513, Nuñez de Balboa crossed the Strait of Panama and discovered the Southern Sea (in spanish, Mar del Sur), later renamed Pacific Ocean.
• Between 1519 and 1522, Magellan (in spanish, Magallanes) and Elcano completed the first voyage around the world. 

Teatry of Tordesillas (1494).

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Nuñez de Balboa.

MAIN GEOGRAPHIC DISCOVERIES OF THE MODERN AGE.File: Mapa de los descubrimientos geográficos en la Edad Moderna. Autor: José Alberto Bermúdez. (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 ES)
 

Christopher Columbus

Vasco de Gama

Magellan

4. THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN STATE.

4. 1. The authoritatian monarchies.

During the Modern Age, feudal european monarchies became authoritarian monarchies. Now appear the modern state: a state in which the king reinforced his power over the kingdom as a whole, subduing the nobility and the cities. This state was based in the idea, developed by Nicholas Machiavelli of that state interest should have priority over the interests of the individuals.

4. 2. The instruments of royal power.

The instruments used by the monarchs to reinforce their power were:

• Territorial unification. They unified and extended their territories by waving wars and negotiation marriage alliances.
• Control of the state's powers:

1. imposing their authority on the high-ranking nobility
2. restricting the autonomy of the cities.
3. summoned Pairlament (which represented the nobility and the cities) as little as possible.

• Improved administration, based on: 

1. Establishment of a capital city in which the monarch's court is located.
2. Creation of a bureocracy of professional civil servants which carried out the monarch's orders.
3. Establishment of standard taxes without the approval of the Pairlament.

•  Creation of a permanent army, made up of paid mercenaries.
• Organisation of international relations. Diplomatic relations were established with other countries, establishing permanent ambassadors who were in charge of defending the monarchy's interest.

The main representatives of the authoritation monarchy were:

• France, with the Valois dinasty.
• England, wih the Tudor dinasty.
• Spain with the Catholic Monarch who unified the Iberian Peninsula.

Nevertheless, Germany and Italy did not become modern states and remained divided.

France in the 10th century. The blue territories were the royal lands.

France in the 13th century. The territories colored in dark blue are the lands of the king. File: Territorial Conquests of Philip II of France.png Vol de nuit (original French version), SamWilson989 (modified English version. CC BY-SA 3.0

France in the 15th century. The territories colored in light blue were the lands of the king.

Francis I of France.

5. Economic transformations and social changes.

5. 1. Demographic growth.

During the 15th and 16th centuries population grew due to the folowing factors:

• improved harvest.
• erradication of the plague.
• relative peace.

Nevertheless was a slow growth because of the high death rate due to:

• infectious diseases
• limited development of the medical practice
• lack of hygiene

5. 2. Economic growth.

• Agriculture continued to occupy most of the active population and grew due to the good harvests and the clearing of new lands.
• The handicrafts was still controled by the guilds, but appeared the homeworking system: bussinespeople provided peasants with raw materials and later retrieve the finished products and sell them.
• Trade grew as result of the geographical discoveries and suffered huge changes:

1. Atlantic routes became more significant than the mediterranean routes: the spice routes with China and India was controled by Portugal; the gold and silver routes with America were controled by Castile; the slave route that linked Africa and the Antilles; and the Pacific route which linked Mexico and the Philipinnes.
2. New products from America were incorporated (tobacco, coffe, cocoa).
3. The trade was controled by Atlantic ports such as Seville and Lisbon, whereas the italian ports lost their dominance.

• The appareance of the merchant capitalism, based on the accumulation of capital accquired from trade due to:

1. the apparition of the first banks.
2. a greater circulation of money.
3. the apparition of the first trading companies.
4. the apparition of new means of payment: cheques, promissory notes (in spanish, letra de cambio). 

5. 3. Social changes.

Society continued to be divided into three estates,

• two privileged estates, which have not to pay taxe: nobility and clergy. They were forced to accept the supremacy of the monarchs, but retained their lands and privileges
• the commoners who have to pay taxes, but we have to distinguish between:

1. The bourgeoisie grew wealthier thanks to the transoceanic trade, bussines and banking. They became the dominant class in the cities, controling the other urban groups (artisans, merchants, workers).
2. The peasantry who made most of the population. They had to pay taxes to the Church, the nobility and the King, but they situation was different accordingo to the part in Europe in which they lived: in Western Europe, they became free and owned their own lands, whereas in the Eastern Europe they were serfs.

Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, duke of Alba. He was one of the most powerful men in Spaind during the kingdoms of Charles I and Phillip II.

6. CHANGE AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS. REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION.

During the 16th century the religious unity of Europe collapsed as a consequence of the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

6. 1. The causes of the Reformation.

There were two causes that explained the start of the Reformation:

• Disdain for the papacy and clergy because of:

1. Popes were mainly concerned with their own interest 
2. Bishop lived a life of luxury and did not reside in their dioceses.
3. Lower-ranking clergy lacked education and failed to set a moral example.
4. Many religious ordes did not adhere to the established rules.

• The abuses of the Church that included: 

1. Nepotism: favouritism by the high-ranking clergy towards members of their own family when allocating ecclesiastic positions.
2. Nicolaism: or common-law marriage as practised by many priests.
3. Simony: sale of eclesiastical posts.
4. The Pope sold forgiveness for sins to whoever bought a document of indulgences.

Pope Sixtus IV, he appointed cardinals two of his nephews.

A portrait of Lucretia Borgia, one of the ten known sons of pope Alexander VI.

Julius II, a nephew of Sixtus IV, he was appointed pope because he bought the votes of two cardinals and later he rule as a king, fighting at the head of the pope's army.

6. 2. Reforms and reformers.

6. 2. 1.  The Lutheran Reformation.

The Reformation was started in Germany by an Augustinian monk, Martin Luther who rejected the sale of indulgences carried out by Pope Leo X to pay for the building of the Vatican.
In 1517, Luther displayed his 95 theses against the indulgences and other aspects of catholicism, because of that he was condemned and excommunicated by the Pope in 1521.

Luteranism was based in several points:

• Justification by the faith instead of good deeds.
• Free interpretation of the Bible.
• Rejection of the authority of the Pope.
• Only recognise two of the sacraments (Baptism and Eucharist).
• Supression of the cult of the Virgin.

Luteranism spreaded through a number of German states and central and northern Europe.

6. 2. 2. The Calvinist Reformation.

• Was preached by John Calvin from 1536 in Geneva (Switzerland). 
• It was based on the  belief in predestination, according to which people are destined by God to be saved or condemned. 
• Calvinism spreaded through the Netherlands, Switzerland, Scotland, France and England. In France, calvinists were called Huguenots (in spanish, Hugonotes) and in England were called Puritans (in spanish, puritanos)

 6. 2. 3. The Anglican Reformation.

Started in 1534, when King Henry VII declared himself head of the Church of England after the Pope refused his request for a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon.

6. 3. The Catholic Counter-reformation.

 The Catholic Church started their own reformation to stop the spread of the Protestant Reformation. It has two features:

• The Council of Trent (1545-1563) created by Pope Paul III, established the Catholic doctrine with the following points:

1. Good deeds are need to atain salvation.
2. Only Church could interpret the Bible.
3. The Pope was infalible.
4. There are seven sacraments.
5. The saints and the Virgin are subjects of devotion.

 Also new rules were established for the clergy and seminaries were created to train priests.

•  The Society of Jesus (in spanish, Compañía de Jesus) founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola (in spanish, San Ignacio de Loyola) in 1540. Was important for the Counter-Reformation for two reasons:

1. Its members has to swear a special vow of obedience to the pope.
2. Received a sound theological training and devote themselves to fight against reformation.

	CATHOLICISM	PROTESTANTISM (LUTHER)	CALVINISM
SALVATION	GOOD DEEDS (Buenas obras)	FAITH	PREDESTINATION
INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE	ONLY THE CHURCH’S INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE IS VALID.	FREE INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE	FREE INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE
POPE	THE POPE IS INFALIBLE	REJECTS THE AUTHORITY OF THE POPE	REJECTS THE AUTHORITY OF THE POPE
SACRAMENTS	SEVEN	ONLY TWO (Baptism and eucharisty)	ONLY TWO (Baptism and eucharisty)
THE VIRGIN AND THE SAINTS.	CULT OF THE VIRGIN AND THE SAINTS (Images of the Virgin and the Saints appear in the churches)	REJECTION OF THE CULT OF THE VIRGIN AND THE VIRGIN.	REJECTION OF THE CULT OF THE VIRGIN AND THE SAINTS

6. 4. The wars of religion.

During the 16th century there were several conflicts in Europe due to religious differences. The most important were:

• The Peasants' war, in the Holy Empire.
• The civil war between Catholichs and Huguenots in France.
• The Eighty Years War in the Netherlands.

7. HUMANISM. THE NEW VISION OF MANKIND.

7. 1. The caharacteristics of humanism.

Humanism was a intellectual movement which emerged in Italy during the 15th century and give rise to a change in the worlview. It had two main characteristics:

• Classical antiquity was taken as a model. Greek and roman science, art, literature and philosophy were studied and became a source of inspiration.
• Mankind was conceived as being at the centre of the world. In the Medieval Period, God was considered the centre of the universe. Nevertheless, humanists believed that human beigns were the centre of the Universe. Because of this, they supported human values such as freedom and reason, and also values of the classical world such as honor, sucess and fame.

7. 2. The areas of Humanistic though.

Humanism encompassed all areas of life:

• Literature and philosophy. Humanist translated and wrote commentaries of classical text. The most important were Nicolas Machiavelli and Pico de la Mirandola.
• Religious, tried to combine the classical writings with the Gospel. The most important were Erasmus of Roterdam and Thomas Moore.
• Science. Humanist tried to explain natural phenomena through the use of reason, observation and experiment. The most important were Nicolas Copernicus, Paracelsus and Andrea Vesalius.

 7. 3. The spread of humanism.

Humanism spreaded through Europe during the 15th and 16th century due several factors:

• Jouneys undertaken by humanists which allowed the exchange of ideas.
• Academies which disseminated knowledge about classical culture.
• The printing press, a mechanical means of reproducing texts that allowed them to be made in series. Was important because:

1. Books could be produced in greater numbers and at lower prices.
2. Paper could be used instead of parchment.
3. Contents could be adapted to the tastes of a growing readership.

 

 

  8 The Renaissance in Italy: architecture.

The Renaissance was an artistic style which applied the ideas of Humanism to art. It appeared in Italy an we can distinguish two different phases:

• Quattrocento, 15th century, Italy.
• Cinquecento, 16th century, spread to the rest of Europe.

8. 1. Characteristics of the Renaissance.

• The artistic model was the Classical Antiquity. They used the materials and models of the greek and roman art.
•  Art was inspired by nature and sought to represent reality. To achieve this they used mathematical methods:

1. Modular theories. They returned to the classical canon to represent the human figure, a module that measure the lenght of eight heads
2. Linear perspective to create an illusion of depth. It consists of a series of lines that converge in a single point (vanishing point) located at the limit of viewer's field of vision.

•   Art returned to antropocentrism:

1. Building were made on a human scale.
2. Human beigns were the protagonists of works of art that try to represent ideal beauty, serenity and equilibrium.

• Artists gained a better social status and fame in various disciplines:

1.  They started to sign their works.
2.  They were supported by wealthy patrons, such as the Medici and the Popes.

 

The Death of the Virgin. Andrea Mantegna. An example of linear perspective. The lines of the floor correpond to the convergence lines that converge on the vanishing point located on the horizon.

The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. Leonardo da Vinci.An example of atmospheric perspective: to modulate colour to simulate changes affected by the atmosphere.

Ideal beauty: The birth of Venus, Botticelli.

  

Better social status of the artist: Self-portrait of Rafael de Sanzio at the age of 13.

 

  8. 2. Architecture and its periods.

Characteristics.

Renaissance archictecture was inspired by classical models. Its characteristics were:

• Use stone as a building material.
• Use Greek and roman architectonic orders.
• Use of semicircular arches.
• Use of flat and vaulted roofs.
• Most common buildings were:

1. Churches built on a latin or greek cross plan.
2. Palaces with a variety of floors and windows with pediments.

Periods

We can distinguish two different periods in the Renaissance Architecture:

• Quatroccento, 15th century, Florence. The main two representatives were:

1. Brunelleschi. Main works: the dome of the Florence cathedral, the church of San Lorenzo, the Pitti Palace.
2. Alberti. Main works: Santa Maria Novella, Palacio Rucellai.

Florence's cathedral dome (interior). Brunelleschi.

Rucellai Palace, Alberti. File: Palazzo Rucellai.JPG https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Sailko CC BY-SA 3.0

San Lorenzo's church interior. Brunelleschi.

Palacio Piti, Brunelleschi.

Santa Maria Novella, Alberti

• Cinquecento. 16th century, Rome. Many works were commissioned by the popes. The main two representatives were:

1. Bramante, San Pietro in Montorio.
2. Michellangelo. Saint Peter's Basilica.

San Pietro in Montorio, Bramante

Saint Peter's dome (exterior). Michellangelo. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dome_of_Saint_Peter's_Basilica_(exterior).jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Staselnik

Saint Peter's dome (interior), Michellangelo.

9. THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY (II). SCULPTURE AND PAINTING.

Common characteristics:

• Influence of classical art.
• Interest in the naked human body and ideal beauty, considered to be the result of harmony and proportion.
• The preferred subjects were religious, mythological and portraits.

9. 1. Quattrocento.

The most important sculptors were:

• Ghiberti, the reliefs of the Gates of the Paradise of the Florence's cathedral.
• Donatello, sculptures such as David, Saint George and the condottiero Gattamelata.

The gates of the paradise, Ghiberti.

The gates of the paradise, Ghiberti

David, Donatello. File: David, Donatello, ca. 1440, Bargello Florenz-01.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Rufus46 CC BY-SA 3.0)

Saint George, Donatello.

Condotiero Gattamelata, Donatello.

The most important painters were:

• Massacio who was specially interested in perspective. His most important works were the Trinity and the Tribute Money.

Trinity, Massacio

The tribute money, Massacio.

•   Botticelli, mythological paintings, such The birth of Venus and Primavera.
  

  

  Primavera, Botticelli.

The birth of Venus, Botticelli.

Venus and Mars, Sandro Botticelli.

  9. 2. Cinquecento.

Sculpture. 
Sculpture, the most important sculptor was Michelangelo who combined in his work anatomical perfection with powerful effect. His most important works are the sculptures of David, Moses, the pietas and the tomb which he carved for the Medici family.

David, Michelangelo.

 

David, Michellangelo. (detail). File: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_(escultura_de_Miguel_%C3%81ngel)#/media/File:%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU08.JPG User: Jorg Bittner Unna CC BY 3.0

Moses, Michelangelo

 

 

Pieta, Michelangelo. File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned edit.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Glimz. CC BY 2.5

 

Medici's chapel, Michelangelo.

Painting. 

The most important painters of the 16th century were: Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Rafael.

• Leonardo da Vinci. His main contribution was the sfumato, a technique which consists in softening the outlines of the figures to create a sense of depth. His main paintings were The Last Supper, the Mona Lisa and the Virgin of the Rocks.

 

The last supper, Leonardo Da VInci.

 

 

Mona Lisa, Leonardo Da Vinci.

 

 

The Virgin of the Rocks, Leonardo Da Vinci.

•   Michelangelo. The main characteristics of his paintings are the nudes, interest in movement, variety of poses, volume and drawing. His main work was the paintings of the Sistine Chapel.
  
  
  

  

  The final Judgement, Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo.

 

The last judgement (detail). Sixtine Chapel, Michelangelo.

 

 

Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo.

 

The Creation of Adam (Sistine Chapel), Michelangelo.

 

The Libyan Sibyl (Sistine Chapel), Michelangelo.

The Delphic Sybil (Sistine Chapel), Michelangelo.

 

•   Raphael. The most important characteristic was his perfection in the use of drawing, colour and composition. His main works were The School of Athens, representations of the Virgin and the Child and portraits.

 

School of Athens, Raphael.

Sistine Madonna, Raphael.

Sistine Madonna (detail), Raphael.

Madonna of the Meadow, Raphael.

The Mariage of the Virgin, Raphael.

Portrait of Julius II, Raphael.

10. The Renaissance beyond Italy.

10. 1. The Flemish school.

The Flemish school appeared in the Netherlands, mainly in the cities of Ghent (in spanish, Gante) and Bruges (in spanish, Brujas), where there was a powerful bourgeoisie who comissioned works of art. Most of their representatives were painters.

The main characteristics of the  Flemish School were:

• The introduction of the oil painting technique (in spanish, pintura al oleo) which involved dissolving pigments in linseed oil; and using canvas as a support.
• Rich colours, luminosity and great detail.
• They represented religious themes and the wealthy bourgeoisie.

 The main representatives were:

• The Van Eyck brothers. Their main work was the Ghent Altarpiece which included the Adoration of the Mystic Lamb. One of them, also produced excellent portraits, such as The Arnolfini Portrait.

The Ghent Altarpiece, Van Eyck Brothers.

The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb (part of the Ghent Altarpiece), Jan van Eyck.

The Virgin Mary (part of the Ghent Altarpiece), Van Eyck Brothers.

The Arnolfini Portrait, Jan Van Eyck.

The Arnolfini portrait (detail). Jan Van Eyck.

The Arnolfini portrait (detail). Jan Van Eyck.

• Roger Van der Weyden introduced the expression of felling. His mains works were The Descent from the Cross (in spanish, El Descendimiento) and the Crucifixion, with the Virgin and Saint John the Evangelist Mourning

The descent from the Cross (in spanish, El descendimiento), Rogier Van der Weyden.

Pieta (Prado museum), Rogier Van der Weyden

Pieta (Royal Museum of Fine Arts of Belgium), Rogier Van der Weyden.

• Bosch, who criticised the society of his days through scenes and fantastical beigns. His main works were The Garden of the Earthly Delights and the Temptations of Saint Anthony Abbott. 

The Garden of the Earthly Delights, Bosch.

The Garden of the Earthly Delights (detail of the Hell's panel), Bosch.

The Garden of the Earthly Delights (detail of the Hell's panel), Bosch.

The Temptation of Saint Anthony Abbott, Bosch.

9. 2. The Renaissance in Germany and France.

Italian Renaissance started to spread through Europe during the 16th century due to factors:

• Many kings and nobles commissioned Italian artists to come and paint at their courts.
• Some European artists went to Italy to study.

Germany.

  The most important representative of the Renaissance in Germany was Albretch Durer. His most important works are his self-portraits and Adam and Eve.

Self-portrait, Durer.

Self-portrait, Durer.

Adam and Eve, Durer.

France. 

Renaissance started with Francis I who built numerous castles such as the Chateau of Chambrod.

Chateau of Chambrod.