EL INICIO DE LA EDAD MODERNA.

Recuperación económica y demográfica.

• Incremento demográfico. Durante el siglo XV, la población europea pasa de 50 millones en 1400 a 70 millones en 1500.
• Incremento de la demanda (consecuencia del crecimiento demográfico), lleva a un aumento de las tierras cultivadas y a un aumento de la productividad. Como consecuencia aumenta la producción y aparece un excedente agrícola.
• El excedente agrícola y las mejoras de la navegación (brújula, astrolabio, cartografía) lleva a una expansión comercial.
• La expansión comercial conduce a un desarrollo de las manufacturas, y como consecuencia a un crecimiento de las ciudades.
• Para financiar el comercio y la artesanía, se desarrolla la banca y nuevos medios de pago, mo la letra de cambio.

El ascenso de la burguesía.

Consecuencia de los cambios sociales anteriores es el ascenso de un nuevo grupo social:la burguesía.

• La burguesía basaba su posición en la posesión de capitales que invertía en actividades que proporcionaban un beneficio económico (comercio, banca, manufacturas).
• El desarrollo del comercio, lleva a la aparición de una capitalismo comercial, basado en los intercambios comerciales.

Comerciante de paños flamenco con su esposa.

• La burguesía adquiere poder económico e incluso político en algunas regiones (Italia).

Lorenzo de Medici, gobernante de Florencia y mecenas. Uno de los miembros más importantes
de la familia Medici que basaba su poder en la Banca.

Aparición de la monarquía autoritaria.

El siglo XV es el momento en que las monarquías consiguen imponerse definitivamente a la nobleza feudal. El resultado fue el establecimiento de la llamada monarquía autoritaria, que supuso la centralización del poder político en manos del rey. Se baso en:

• El establecimiento de la autoridad del rey en todo el territorio.
• La creación de ejércitos permanentes que dependían directamente del monarca.
• Administración y haciendas profesionales controladas por el monarca.
• Aparición de la diplomacia, relaciones permanentes entre los distintos estados.

Los principales ejemplos son los Reyes Católicos en España, Francisco I de Francia y Enrique VIII de Inglaterra.

Francisco I de Francia.

Fernando II de Aragón e Isabel I de Castilla: los Reyes Católicos.

GLOSARY UNITS 4. Y 5

Anemometer (in spanish, anemometro) a device use to measure the speed of the wind.

Anticyclone (in spanish, anticiclón), a zone of atmospheric high pressure. Produces dry and stable weather (sunny and with no precipitation).
Atmosphere (in spanish, atmósfera): gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth.
Atmospheric pressure: the weight of a colum or air on a place.
Bioclimate is a extensive región characterised by its own climatic features and vegetation.
Biosphere: (in spanish, biosfera) is the combination of all living beings on the planet and the enviorment they live in.  
Breeze: (in spanish, brisa) a marine or mountain daily winds (in spanish, brisa).
Chaparral: the scrubland typical of the Mediterranean climate in the Southwest coast of the United States.
Climate is the average state of the atmosphere over one place during a long period ot time.
Climatic zone is a division of the Earth in latitudinal areas according to its average temperatures and average rainfall (precipitation level).
Climatology: (in spanish, climatología) is the science which study the various types of climate.
Deciduous (in spanish, hoja caduca), vegetation (tress and shrubs) that lose their leaves seasonally.
Depression (in spanish borrasca), a zone of amospheric high pressure. Produces wet and unestable weather (cloudy and with many precipitations).
Exosphere, the highest layer of the atmosphere, located between 500 and 10.000 kilometres.
Evergreen (in spanish, hoja perenne), vegetation (trees and shrubs) that retain their leaves all the year around.
Forest (in spanish, bosque) a vegetal formation which is formed by tres
Grasslands (in spanish, pradera) a vegetal formation which consists of grasses
Hail (in spanish, granizo), precipitation in solid state (small pieces of ice).
Isotherm (in spanish, isoterma), an imaginary line which connect all the points with the same temperatura.
Isoyets (in spanish, isoyetas) imaginary lines connect locations with the same precipitation levels.
Mild, something that is moderate. When we talk about temperature, we are
Mesosphere, the thrid layer of the atmosphere, located between 50 and 80 kilometres. It is the coolest layer of the atmosphere.
Monsoon (in spanish, monzón), seasonal winds that appear in South East Asia.
Precipitation is the water that falls on the Earth's surface from the sky, either in liquid (rain) or solid (snow, hail) forms.
Pluviometer or rain gauge a device use to measure and indicate the amount of rain over a place.
Scrubland (in spanish, matorral) a vegetal formation that is formed by bushes
Steppe (in spanish, estepa). A semiarid desert which receive between 150 and 750 mm of precipitation annualy and has at least seven dry months.
Stratosphere, the second layer of the atmosphere, located between 12 and 50 kilometres.  It contains the ozone layer that protects Earth from ultraviolet rays.
Taiga: (in spanish, taiga), the coniferous evergreen forest of subarctic lands (North America, Eurasia).
Temperature is the amount of heat in the air.
Thermometer is the device that we use to measure atmospheric temperature. 

Trade winds, (in spanish, alisios) constants winds that blows from the Tropics to the Equator.
Troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere located between Earth's surface and 12 kilometres. It produces the planet's metereological and climatic phenomena.
Vegetal formation is the combination of plants in a región that are similar in size of characteristics.
Vegetation: is the entire range of plant life in an área.
Weather vane (in spanish, veleta), is a device use to determine the direction of the wind.

AGES AND SOURCES OF PREHISTORY.

Time and the science of history.

History: the science that studies humanity's past. 

History studies all the aspects of human life:

• politics.
• economy
• society.
• culture.
• art.

Division of history.

To facilitate its study, we divided History into periods of variable lengths, separated by key events. The most importan are:

• eras. There are two of them:

1. Prehistory, the period of time from the apparition of the first human being to the invention of writing.
2. History, from the invention of writing to present day.

• We divide eras into shorter periods of time, known as ages.

-Prehistory is divided into two ages:

1. Stone Age, from the apparition of the first hominids (4,4 million years ago) to the invention of metal tools (4.500 B. C.).
2. Metal Age, from the invention of metal tools (4.500 B. C.) to the invention of writing (3.250 B. C.).

-History is divided into four ages:

1. Ancient, from the invention of writing (3. 250 B. C.) to the fall of the Roman Empire (476 A. D.).
2. Middle, from the fall of the Roman Empire to the discovery of America (476 A. D.-1492 A. D.)
3. Modern, from the discovery of America to the French Revolution (1492 A. D.-1789 A. D.)
4. Contemporary, from the French Revolution to the present day (1789 A. D.-?).

The division of prehistory.

Prehistory is the period of time from the apparition of the first human beings (4,4 million years) to the invention of writing (3.250 B.C). We can divide it into two ages:

• Stone Age, tools were made of stone. We can distinguish:

1. Paleolithic (literally, Old Stone) from 4,4 million years ago to 10.000 B. C. Tools were carved from stone.
2. Neolithic (literally, New Stone) from 10.000 B. C. to 4.500 B. C. Tools were made of polished stone.

• Metal Age, tools were made of metal. We can distinguish three periods according to the metal used:

1. Cooper Age.
2. Bronze Age.
3. Iron Age.

The sources for prehistory.

In order to the study prehistory our sources are:

• the remains left behind by primitive human beings: humans (bones) and material (tools, pottery).
• the remains of animal or plants of their time.

Most of this remains are buried, because of that is necessary to carry out archeological excavations.

An archaelogical excavation is a slow and expensive digging to recover remains buried underground.

It is composed of several stages:

1. Division of the site into a grid.
2. Excavation of the site.
3. Creation of a file for each object: number, description, site coordinates.
4. Dating of the remains: the lower strata are older than the upper ones.

Archaeological grid. Source: www.museumsofmayo.com

Archeological site excavation. Gran Dolina.

Arqueolocial site stratigrafy. Modified image. Original image: By Giovanni Dall'Orto - Own work, Attribution, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15663407

SPAIN'S PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND BIOCLIMATES. SPAIN, ITS LOCATION AND RELIEF.

Location and geographical extension.

Extension: Spain has a surface of 505.590 square kilometres. It covers:

• most of he Iberian Peninsula.
• the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea.
• the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.
• the cities of Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa.

Location: Iberian Peninsula is located n the south-east of Europe. Its limits are:

• to the North, the Cantabrian Sea, Andorra and France.
• to the South, the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
• to the West, the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.

Relief.

The average height of the Iberian Peninsula is 660 metres above the sea level. In it we can find all the main landforms:

• Plateaus. The centre of the Iberian Peninsula is occupied by the Meseta Central a plateau of an average altitude of between 600 and 700 metres. The Meseta is crossed by two big mountain ranges:

1. The Sistema Central which divided the Meseta Central into the North and the South Sub-Mesetas.
2. The Montes de Toledo which runs throught the South Sub-Meseta.

Furthermore there are other mountain ranges that surrounds the Meseta:

1. In the North, the Macizo Galaico-leonés and the Cordillera Cantábrica.
2. in the Easth, the Iberian System.
3. In the South, the Sierra Morena.

Central plateau and surrounding mountain ranges

• Young mountain ranges outside the Meseta Central. The most important are:

1. the Montes Vascos.
2. The Pyrenees.
3. The Cordillera Costero-Catalana.
4. The Cordilleras Bética, in which is located the highest peak of the Peninsula: Mulhace (3478 m).

• Plains. We can distinguish two types:

1.  River basins located inside the Meseta Central; Duero, Tajo, Guadiana.
2. Exterior depressions: Ebro and Guadalquivir valleys.

 

 Coastal relief.

The main landforms of the peninsula's coastal relief are:

1. Capes: Palos, La Nao, Gata
2. Gulfs: Bizkaia, Valencia Bay of Cadiz.

Canary and Balearic islands.

Canary islands: volcanic relief with the highest peak in Spain: the Teide.
Balearic islands:

1. Formentor cape.
2. Bays of Palma and Alcudia.

THE MAJOR BIOCLIMATIC ZONES: THE FRIGID ZONE AND MOUNTAINS

THE FRIGID ZONE.

 

Geographical distribution.

Location: between the polar circles and the poles.

Characteristics: harsh cold, limited light and low precipitation levels.

We can distinguish two different zones: 

• the glacial environment (ice caps), located between the 75th parallel and the poles. In the North, Greenland and in the south Antarctica.
• the periglaciar environment or the edges of the polar regions (tundra). Includes the far northern regions of North America, Europe an Asia and in the southern hemisphere the far southern regions of Argentine and Chile.

The polar climate: dominant cold.

Main characteristics:

• Low temperatures all year around (never above 10ºC). We have to distinguish between the:

1. Ice caps, always bellow zero degrees.
2. Tundra, during the summer temperatures rise above 0ºC.

• Scarce precipitations, generally as snow.

1.  Ice caps, almost no precipitation.
2. Tundra, below 250-300 mm per year.

• Most of water apperars in solid form (ice). There are differences:

1. Ice caps, only ice.
2. Tundra, liquid water during the sumer. Large acumulations of ice on the permantly frozen subsoil (permafrost).

Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica.

Permafrost, Tundra.

Polar vegetation.

In the polar caps there is no vegetation.

In the tundra, vegetation is adapted to the very harsh conditions:

1. little light.
2. low temperature.
3. strong winds
4. poor soils.

We are goint to find:

1. low-lying plants, such as mosses (in spanish, musgo) and lichens (in spanish, liquen).
2. Shrubs, such as dwarf willows.

Mosses, Tundra

Dwarf willows

MOUNTAIN BIOCLIMATE.

Location.

Mountain bioclimate is azonal, it can be found at any latitude.
We can distinguish two zones:

• low mountain 
• high mountain or alpine. Here average temperature does not rise above 10ºC and there are no trees.

Characteristics:

High altitude determine the climatic elements:

• Low temperatures: temperature drops 0.6ºC for every 100 metres above sea level.
• High precipitacion levels until you reach 1.000 to 2.000 metres. Then starts to decrease.
• Rivers are irregular

In the temperate zone we have to distinguish between two aspects (aspect: direction that a topographic slope faces):

• sunlit aspect (in spanish, solana), faces the Sun directly: higher temperatures with greater daytime and thermal contrasts.
• shaded aspect (in spanish, umbría): lower temperatures, lower thermal contrasts.

 

Mountain vegetation.

Vegetation has to adapt to harsh conditions.
We can distinguish several altitudinal zones according to the distance from the base of the mountains:

• Woodlands. We have to distinguish between:

1. Equatorial rainforest and tropical woodland in the torrid zone.
2. Deciduous woodland (oak trees and beeches) and coniferous woodland (pine and fir trees).

Deciduous Woodland. Alps.

Source: By Gabriel HM - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=50473707

Tropical Woodland, Himalaya (2.000 m).

Source:

https://www.flickr.com/photos/38019504@N04/6271593046/

• Scrubland and pastures.
• Moos and lichens.

External links:

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/Biome/biotundra.php

THE MAJOR BIOCLIMATIC ZONES: THE TEMPERATE ZONE.

Location and main characteristic.

Location: between the tropics and the polar circles.

Main feature: the contrast of temperature and as a consequence the apparition of several seasons.

We can distinguish three subtypes: mediterranean, oceanic and continental.

The mediterranean bioclimate.

Location: around the Mediterranean Sea, Western America (California), Africa and Australia.

Characteristics:

• Little contrast of temperature, since it is close to the sea. Hot summers and mild winters.
• Moderate precitation levels between 300 and 800 mm per year.
• Dry season during the summer.
• The characteristic vegetation is the mediterranean woodland with:

1. Small perenial (they retain its leaves along the year) trees (holm oak, cork).
2. Shurbs (thyne, rosemary etc).

Holm Oak (Encina)

Rosemary (romero).

Thyne (tomillo).

The oceanic bioclimate.

Location: the western border of the continents.

Characteristics:

• Moderate temperature due the influence of the sea.
• Mild winters (never below -3ºC) and cool summers (not more than 22ªC).
• High precipitacion levels (more than 800 mm).
• Rivers with a high volume of water.

Vegetation is deciduous (vegetation which lose their leaves seasonally) woodland made up of:

• tall trees with large leaves that fall in autum (oak, beech).

Beech (haya).

Beech in winter.

Oak tree (in spanish, roble).

• Scrubland and grass.

Grassland, Cork (Ireland).

Continental bioclimate.

Location: in inland continental regions.

Characteristics:

• Huge contrast in climatic temperature due to the distance from the sea.
• Very cold winters (temperatures below -3ºC) and hot and warm summers.
• Moderate precipitation levels (300-800 mm) that fall mostly during the summer.

Yakutsk, Siberia. Average temperature in july: 20ºC.

Yakutsk, Siberia. Average temperature in january -38ºC.

About the continental vegetation we have to distinguish between the:

• Taiga or coniferous woodland: trees with needle shpaed leaves (pine, fir trees) along with grassland.

Taiga, Siberia.

Fir trees (in spanish, abetos), Florida.

Fir tree leaves.

Pine tree (in spanish, pino).

• steppes without trees due to the low precipitation levels.

Steppes, Mongolia.

External links:

Mediterranean bioclimate:

https://marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/shrub.htm

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/med_chap_climate_page.htm

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/chaparral_climate.htm

https://sites.google.com/site/climatetypes/mediterranean

http://www.plantsdb.gr/en/articles/260-mediterranean-climate-and-plants

http://www.slideshare.net/crystalmata/mediterranean-climate-8059553

NOTE: many of these pages does not use the Celsius scale or the metric system. You have to make the conversion of the Fahrenheit degrees to Celsius degrees and of the inches to mm. Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion chart:

http://www.metric-conversions.org/temperature/fahrenheit-

Inches to milimeters:

http://www.metric-conversions.org/length/inches-to-millimeters.htm

Examples of places with a mediterranean bioclimate.

Rome: https://en.climate-data.org/location/1185/

Los Angeles: https://en.climate-data.org/location/714829/

Oceanic bioclimate:

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/deciduous_climate_page.htm

https://marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/tempded.htm

http://www.mbgnet.net/sets/temp/index.htm

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/Biome/biotemperate.php

NOTE: many of these pages does not use the Celsius scale or the metric system. You have to make the conversion of the Fahrenheit degrees to Celsius degrees and of the inches to mm. Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion chart:

http://www.metric-conversions.org/temperature/fahrenheit-

Inches to milimeters:

http://www.metric-conversions.org/length/inches-to-millimeters.htm

Examples of places with a oceanic bioclimate.

London: https://en.climate-data.org/location/1/

Bergen: https://en.climate-data.org/location/100/

Continental bioclimate:

http://www.ducksters.com/science/ecosystems/taiga_forest_biome.php

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/taiga.htm

http://kids.nceas.ucsb.edu/biomes/taiga.html

Examples of places with a continental bioclimate.

Moscow: https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,Moscow,Russia

https://en.climate-data.org/location/6390/

Edmonton: https://en.climate-data.org/location/610/

http://www.edmonton.climatemps.com/

THE MAJOR BIOCLIMATIC ZONES: THE TORRID ZONE

General characteristics

Location: between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

Main characteristic: a very high temperature, always over 18ºC, but can distinguish two types:

The equatorial bioclimate.

Location: located next to the Equator areas.

Location of equatorial climates.

Source: By Koppen_World_Map_Hi-Res.png: Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A.(University of Melbourne)derivative work: Me ne frego (talk) - Koppen_World_Map_Hi-Res.png, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14798010

Main features

• Temperatures are consistently high, around 25 ° C. In addition, the atmospheric temperature range is very narrow, only 3 ° C.
• Precipitation levels exceed 1,500 mm and are distributed equally throughout the year. As a result there is only a season, hot and humid.
• The rivers are regular and have a high amount of wáter.

• The vegetation is characterized by the appearance of the jungle or rainforest: dense forest, which remains green throughout the year. It has two main characteristics:

1. It is divided in several layers according to the height of the different vegetation species.
2. It consists of a huge of variety of vegetal species.

Rainforest canopy.

The bioclimate tropical.

Tropical humid climates.

Source: By Koppen_World_Map_Hi-Res.png: Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A.(University of Melbourne)derivative work: Me ne frego (talk) - Koppen_World_Map_Hi-Res.png, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14798346

Tropical dry climates.

Location: extends from the equator to the two tropics.

Main features:

• High temperatures, always above 18 ° C, but had a wider atmospheric temperature range, between 3 and 10 ° C.
• Precipitation levels are high, between 750 and 1,500 mm, but irregular, making it appear two seasons: a rainy summer and a dry season of winter season.
• The rivers are irregular.

There are two subtypes:

• humid tropical area with a three-month dry season or less.
• dry tropical zone or savanah with dry season of more tan three months.

The vegetation, which depends on the levels of precipitation. We can distinguish:

• tropical Woodland, less dense than the equatorial rainforest.

Tropical humid rainforest, India.

Source: By Aditya thaokar (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

• Savannah, it consists of:

1. tall grasses that grow during the wet season and die during the dry season.
2. Scrub plants and trees such as the acacia and baobabs.

Grassland, Africa.

Acacia, Kenia.

Extenal links:

Ecuatorial bioclimate.

http://www.alevelgeography.com/characteristics-of-the-tropical-equatorial-rainforest/

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/biogeography/a/tropical-rainforest-biomes

http://www.ri.net/schools/West_Warwick/manateeproject/Rainforest2/climate.htm

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/rnfrst_climate_page.htm

NOTE: many of these pages does not use the Celsius scale or the metric system. You have to make the conversion of the Fahrenheit degrees to Celsius degrees and of the inches to mm.

Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion chart:

http://www.metric-conversions.org/temperature/fahrenheit-

Inches to milimeters:

http://www.metric-conversions.org/length/inches-to-millimeters.htm

Examples of places with a continental bioclimate.

Kampala: https://en.climate-data.org/location/5578/

Singapore: https://en.climate-data.org/continent/asia/#example0

Amazon rainforest: http://rainforests.mongabay.com/amazon/rainforest_ecology.html

Tropical dry bioclimate:

http://www.ducksters.com/science/ecosystems/savanna_biome.php

https://magic.piktochart.com/output/3491529-tropical-dry-rainforest-biome

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/savanna_climate_page.htm

Examples of places with a tropical dry bioclimate.

Darwin:  https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,Darwin,Australia

https://en.climate-data.org/location/6322/

Brasilia: https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,Brasilia,Brazil
https://en.climate-data.org/location/852/

MODELO DE EXAMEN. PENDIENTES I BACHILLERATO.

EL EXAMEN TENDRÁ UNA DURACIÓN APROXIMADA DE UNA HORA. OS RECOMIENDO QUE INTENTÉIS CONTESTAR A LA PRIMERA PREGUNTA (ordenar cronológicamente) EN NO MÁS DE DIEZ MINUTOS PARA PODER DEDICARLE MÁS TIEMPO A LAS DEMÁS.

Os recomiendo que intentéis responder a las preguntas en una hora de tiempo para comprobar si podéis responderlas en ese tiempo . Podéis enviarme vuestras respuestas en la sección de comentarios y yo os las corregiré para que veáis vuestros posibles errores.

EXAMEN DE PENDIENTES – Hª MUNDO CONTEMPORÁNEO (1ª parte, 26 de enero 2016))   

                                                                                                                                            

Nombre_________________________________Curso_________

A) Ordena cronológicamente (1 el más antiguo, 10 el más moderno) los siguientes acontecimientos

(Valor 2 puntos, se reduce 0,25 por cada fallo o respuesta en blanco):

	Revolución rusa.		Tratado de Versalles
	Revolución americana		Batalla de Verdún.
	Primer ferrocarril		Revolución francesa.
	Revolución de 1848.		Crack del 29.
	Unificación de Italia.		Revolución de 1820.

B) Comenta el siguiente mapa (valor 2 puntos):

1.- ¿Cuáles son las circunstancias históricas del momento?                                                                          2.- ¿Cuáles eran los países más importantes de Europa en este momento? ¿A qué se debía su importancia?                              

3.- ¿Qué territorios se anexionan estos países más importantes?                                                                                            

4.- ¿Qué países europeos no eran estados unificados?

C) Define tres de los siguientes términos (valor 3 puntos, uno por cada término):

Mercantilismo, Monarquía constitucional, Liberalismo económico, Proteccionismo,  Tesis de Abril, Sociedad de naciones, Tratado de Versalles.

D) Desarrolla DOS de las siguientes preguntas (Valor 3 puntos, 1,5 por cada una):

• La construcción de los estados nacionales (unificación italiana y alemana)
• Las grandes corrientes ideológicas del obrerismo (socialismo utópico, marxismo y anarquismo )
• La Gran Depresión.