UNIT. 13. ANCIENT ROME (Tirso de Molina 2019-2020)

1. THE REPUBLIC.

1. 1. Cronology.

 We can distinguish three phases in the history of the roman civilization:

• Monarchy from 753 B. C. to 509 B. C.
• Republic from 509 B. C. to 30 B. C.
• Empire from 30 B. C. to 476 A. D.

2. Los orígenes de la ciuda.
In the first millnium B.C. the Italian Peninsula was inhabited by different peoples:

• etruscos en el norte; 
• griegos en el sur; 
• y sabinos, latinos, samnitas en el centro. 

En el centro de la península. el Lacio, apareció Roma, la ciudad que se convirtió en el centro de la civilización romana, sin embargo, hay que distinguir los orígenes míticos y los históricos de la ciudad.

2. 1. Los orígenes míticos.
Los romanos sintieron la necesidad de darle un origen mítico a su ciudad:

• El poeta Virgilio escribió la Eneida en el siglo I a. c., en la que se afirmaba que el origen de Roma, estaba en Eneas, un semidiós troyano, hijo de la diosa Venus, que decidió establecerse en el Lacio después de la caída de Troya.

• Según la leyenda, años más tarde, Rea Silvia, una descendiente de Eneas, tuvo dos hijos con el dios Marte: Rómulo y Remo, que fueron abandonados en el río Tiber. Los gemelos fueron amamantados por una loba y al crecer fundaron Roma, pero se pelearon y Rómulo mato a Remo, convirtiéndose en el primer rey de la ciudad.

 

1. 2. Los orígenes históricos.
Archeological remains show that:

•   in the 8th century BC, some latin tribes came together on top of the Palatine Hill on the bank of the River Tiber, a place that was easy to defend and well communicated.
• In the 7th century BC, the latins occupied the seven hills around the River Tiber to protect themshelves from their enemies.
  
  

  User:Renata3 OrbiliusMagister. Seven Hills of Rome.svg (CC BY-NC-SA)

1. 3. The monarchy.

• There were seven kings in Rome, the firsts four latin, the last three Etruscan (who occupied Latium).
• Los reyes tenían todos los poderes: administraba justicia, dirigía el ejercito y era el sumo sacerdote. Gobernaba con el Senado, una asamblea formada por miembros de las grandes familias aristocráticas.
• La economía era agrícola y ganadera, pero el comercio y la artesanía también eran muy importantes.

2. REPUBLICAN ROME, (6th to 1st century BC).

OrigIn: in 509 BC, the aristocratic families of Rome with the help of the people, ended the reign of the last Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus and Rome became a Republic.

2. 1. The fight for citizenship.

Casuse: In Rome there were two main social groups:

• the patricians were a minority of aristocratic families (genes) who:

1. made laws.
2. exercised justice.
3. monopolised public positions.

• the plebeians, who were the majority of the population (peasants, artisans, traders). They had no political rights, buy had to paid taxes and join the army.

Bellow them were the women and foreigners who had no political rights., estaban los extranjeros, las mujeres y los esclavos, sin derechos políticos.

The plebeians fought for the same right as patricians for 200 years. By the 3rd they became roman citizes and obtained:

• The right to chose a representative to defend their interest: the plebeian tribune..
• A set of public writing laws: the Law of the Twelve Tables.
• The right to marry patricians and to hold public poistions.

2. The republican goverment.

Roma era una oligarquía, tenían más poder los ciudadanos más ricos y los pobres no tenían acceso a las magistraturas.. 

There were three main institutions:

• The senate, composed of 300 former magistrates. Was in charge of:

1. foreing policy and finances.
2. ratify the laws pass in the assemblies.

• The magistrates who ruled in the name of the Senate and the people of Rome. There were two types:

1. Superiors: cónsuls (ran the goverment and the army), pretors (justice) and censors (appointed the senators).
2. Inferiors: aediles (ran the city), cuestors (collected taxes) and pebleian tribuen (cuold oppose the decisions of other magistrates).

• The assemblies were made of up of citizens who voted for laws and electred magistrates. There were three types:

• century assemby:

1. divided citizens into 193 different groups according to wealth. The richs had most of the votes.
2. elected supperior magistrates.

• tribal assembly:

1. divided citizens according to residence.
2. elected inferior magistrates and the pebleian tribune.

• curiate assembly:

1. did not have a political role.

3. The territorial expansion and the crisis of the Republic.

3. 1. Phase of the territorial expanion.

The Roman Republic expanded in several phases:

• From 500 to 250 BC it conquered the Italian Peninsula.
• From  264 to 164 BC y II a. c, it conquered the Western Mediterranean.
• From 2nd century BC to 1st centuriy AD, a. c. y I d. c. conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Gallia, Britannia and a part of Central Europe.

3. 2. The Roman army.

The Roman army was composed of all citizens between the ages of 17 and 60.
The basic military unit was the legion, whic was made up of 5.00 men.
Legionaries stayed in camps which were like small towns and often became the origin of cities.

3. 3. The crisis od the Republic.

The conequest created numerous problems:

• Social inequalities. Some people became rich from the profit of war, the selling of prisoners and the explotation of large estates (latinfundia).
• Social crisis. Many peasants lost their lands because they had to serve in the army. This provoked revolts, such as the one led by the Gracchi brothes (2nd century BC).
• The Senate gave power to military commanders (dictators) to stop the revolts, but they began fighting each other, causing civil wars.

 3. 4. Julius Caesar.

Julius Caesar was elected consul in 59 BC, and governor of several provinces the next year.
He managed to conquer the Galia and with the support of the pebleians he became dictator in perpetuity in 44 BC.
Some senators though that he wante to become a king with the support of the plebeians and killed him in 44 BC.

Rome in 264 B. C.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dzlinker https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Egypt%2C_Rome%2C_Carthage_and_Numidia.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Republic-44BC.png https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Clip~commonswiki&action=edit&redlink=1
ROMAN REPUBLIC IN 45 BC.

Roman republic 30 B. C.

The expansion of the Roman Empire.

4. THE ROMAN EMPIRE (1st century BC to 5th CENTURY AD).

4. 1. Una nueva forma de gobierno.
After Caesar's death, his adopted son Octavius won a civil war. He established a new form of goverment:

• In 27 BC, the Senate named him Augustus (chosen by the gods).
• he was the head of the army: Emperor.
• most senior religious authority: Pontifex Maxinus.
• He had all the powers: consul, passed the laws and appointed the Senate and the Assemblies.

The republican institutions (the Senate, magistrates and assemblies) continued to exist, but without power.

4. 2. The imperial cult.

When Augustus died, he was deified, starting the imperial cult. Romans were allowed to practise various religions but the Imperial Cult was obligatory to show that people were loyal to Rome.

4. 3. A period of prosperity (1st to 2nd century AD).

The 1st and 2nd centuries AD were a Golden Age for the Empire known as the Pax Romana, for 200, the Roman empire controlled a vast an peaceful territory due to:

• a powerful army protected the borders (limites) from attacks by barbarians using walls.
• the integration of the of the ocnquered peoples into Roman culture due to the road network, the economic prosperity, the growth of cities and the spread of the Latin language: romanization.

4. 4. Control of the territory.

The Empire was divided into provinces, which were ruled by a governor, elected by the senate or the emperor, and assisted by oficials. The governors were in charge of:

• collect taxes.
• judge crimes.
• look after the cities.

Hadrian's Wall ruins, built to protect the Northern frontier of the Roman Britian.

3. 3. Romanization:

5. ROME.

Rome the capital city of the Roman empire was the biggest time of Antiquity with about a million inhabitants, most of them lived in crowned apartamente buildings (insulae).
In the center of the city, built around seven hills, were located the most important buildings:

• temples
• baths, complexes for personal hygiene and sports, with an open-air space for physical exercise and cold, warm and hot water pools for bathin.
• circus for chariots races.
• amphiteathre for gladiator fights.
• theather.

6. THE ROMAN SOCIETY.

6. 1. Citizens: the rich and the poors.

From the 3th century AD, most of the free men were citizens. They had political rights and were protected by laws,but they were divided according to their wealth:

• the nobles were senators, senior empire officials, rich plebeians with businesses and middle managers (equites).
• Plebeians were the large masses of pesants and salaierd ubran dwellers. Many of them lifec on money and the amusements given by the State (bread and circuses).

However, there social mobility. Rich pebleian could become nobles.

6. 2. Women in Rome.

Roman women had limited rights and could not participate in politics. Families were patriarchal and the the pater familias had authority over his wive and childrens:

•  higher-class women had their own fortunes and could manage propierty.
• poorest women worked on land, in workshops and domestic service.

6. 3. Slaves and freemen.

 Slaves made up a half of the population of Rome. They did the mos difficult work, but also were teachers and administrators.
A slave could be freed and obtained Roman citizenship: libertos or freedmen.

6. 4. An urban society.

Roman society were based in cities. Roman cities were:

• were home of the goverment.
• were economic centres: artisanship and trade.

 All the roman cities had the same structure:

• were surrounded by walls.
• had a central square, the forum, which was the centre of political and religious life. 

8. THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE.

The Roman Empire entered 8. a serious crisis from the 3nd century AD onwards.
In the 5th century, the Empire broke up and the western part was conquered by Germanic peoples.

8. 1. The start of the crisis.

In the 3rd century the Empire experienced a crsis:

• The territorial expansion stopped and the germanic people beyond the borders attacked the borders.
• Economic crisis due to:

1. lack of slaves.
2. reduction of the agricultural production.
3. stop of trade due to the barbarian attacks.

• Revolts and assassination of, because the army was the only authority in the provinces.

  8. 3. Christianity: the religion of the empire.

• Between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Christians were persecuted and tortured because they refused to follow the impeiral cult.
• From the 3rd century D, Christianity spreaded through the Empire as a result of the social crisis.
• 313 AD, Emperor Constantine made Christianity legal (Edict of Milan).
• At the end of the 4th century, Theodosius declared it the official religion.

 8. 4. The fall of the Western Roman Empire.

 In the 395 AD, the Empreor Theodosius divided the Empire into two parts, two make easier to defend:

• Eastern Roman Empire, ruled by Arcadio, was the richest and most populous.
• Western Roman Empire, ruled by Honorio, was the poorest part.

At the start of the 5th century, Germanic peoples enterde the Western Roman Empire, fleeing form a Central Asian people: the Huns. They settled and divided the empire into different kingdoms.
In 476 AD, Odoacer, a barbarian chief, removed the last roman empero, Romulus Ausgustus from power.

MAP OF THE GOTHIC INVASIONS DURING THE THIRD CENTURY.

File:GothicInvasions250-251-en.svg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dipa1965

 

In 260 AD, a military commander, Postumus, proclaimed himself emperor and ruled for ten years over Galia, Hispania and Britannia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Gallic_Empire,_260_AD.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Aurelian272

Division of the empire by Theodosius I, 395 AD. Licencia: Dominio Público.

 

File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png User:MapMaster License: (CC BY-SA 2.5)

UNIDAD 12. COLONIZACIONES Y PUEBLOS PRERROMANOS Antonio de Nebrija 2019-2020

1. EL ORIGEN DE LOS PUEBLOS IBEROS Y CELTAS.

Durante el I milenio a. c. la Penísula Ibérica aún se encontraba en la Edad de Bronce. Entre el año 1.000 y el 500 a. c. se produjo la aparición de los pueblos celtas e iberos como consecuencia de la influencia de: indoeuropeos, fenicios y griegos.

1. 1. Los pueblos indoeuropeos.

Los indoeuropeos provenían de las grandes llanuras europeas y entraron la Península por los Pirineos entre los siglo X y V a. c.
Su modo de vida se caracterizaba por:

• metalurgia del hierro.
• economía basada en el cultivo de cereales y el pastoreo de ganado.
• La incineración de los muertos, depositando las cenizas en una urna.

 Llegaron a la Península en diversas oleadas, y a partir del siglo VIII a. c., ocuparon el Norte y el centro de la Península (celtas).

1. 2. Las colonizaciones de los pueblos del Mediterráneo Oriental.

En el I milenio a. c. una serie de pueblos del Mediterráneo Oriental fundaron colonias en las costas de la Península Ibérica: griegos, fenicios y cartagineses.

• Los fenicios eran comerciantes procedentes del actual Libano. Entre los siglo XI y VIII a. c. dominaron el comercio Mediterráneo.
• Cartago era una colonia fenicia, situada en el Norte de África, que a partir del siglo V a. c. sustituyo a los fenicios.

 1. 3. La formación de los pueblos celtas e iberos.

La influencia de los colonizadores dio lugar a dos conjuntos de pueblos:

• En el Este y el Sur de la Península, la influencia de griegos, fenicios y cartagineses dio lugar a los iberos.
• En el Norte y el Centro y el Oeste, la influencia de los indoeuropeos dio lugar a los celtas.

Celtas e iberos son los pueblos prerromanos que encontraron los romanos en el siglo III a c.

 

 

2. Las colonizaciones.

Las colonizaciones supusieron la entrada de la Península Ibérica en los tiempos históricos, además de una serie de avances.
Las aportaciones más importantes de los colonizadores fueron:

• La introducción de la escritura.
• Nuevos cultivos (olivo y vid) y técnicas agrícolas y nuevos animales domésticos (gallina, gato).
• El uso del hierro.
• El torno de alfarero.
• Aprovechamiento de las salinas y la salazón del pescado.

2. 1. La colonización griega y fenicia.

• Los fenicios se asentaron en el sur de la Península Ibérica. Fundaron Gadir (Cádiz) en 1.000 ac y otras colonias en el sureste.
• Los griegos venían de la ciudad de Focea en el siglo 7 ac y fundaron colonias en la costa este como Emporion.

Los fenicios y los greigos comerciaban con la población indigena. Intercambiaban metales y salazones por productos manufacturados (textiles, joyas y ceramicas).

2. 2. Los cartagineses.

•  En el siglo V ac los Cartagines lucharon contra los griegos por el control de la costa de la Península. Finalmente se hicieron con el contro del comercio de los metales y los salazones.
•  En el siglo III ac, los cartagineses ocuparon la costa sur y la este de la Península Ibérica para reclutar soldados y conseguir metales para luchar contra Roma.

2. 3 Arte fenicio y púnico.

Las características del arte fenicio eran:

•  Influencia del arte egipcio y asirio.
• Figuras rigidas y  frontalismo.
• Hechas en piedra y bronce.
• Función religiosa.

 

3. Tartessos.

Entre el año 1.000 y el 500 a. c. se desarrollo la civilización tartésica en el Sur de la Península Ibérica. Los griegos lo describían como un reino

3. 1. El área de influencia de Tartesos.

Tartesos se extendía desde el oeste de Andalucia al Sur de Extremadura, aunque su centro estaba en las provincias de Huelva, Sevilla y Cadiz.

3. 2. Importancia económica.

• Tartesos tenía minas de plata, oro, cobre y hierro y talleres dedicados a la manufactura de objetos de metal.
• Tenía un papel fundamental en las las rutas atlánticas de Galicia y las Islas Británicas  que proporcionaban plata, plomo y estaño al Mediterráneo Oriental.
  
• El comercio con los griegos y los fenicios, intercambiando minerales por productos de lujo (perfumes, ámbar, cerámica y joyas).

 3. 3. Una sociedad aristocrática.

• Había una aristocracia que controlaba las tierras, el comercio y la riqueza.
• Tenían un sistema de escritura debido a la influencia fenicia.
•  Rendían culto a los dioses orientales . 

Localización de la cultura tartessica. Arhivo: File:Tartessos.png Autor: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Tyk Licencia: GFLD

4. LOS PUEBLOS CELTAS Y CELTÍBEROS.

 Tenemos que distinguir entre:

• los celtas que ocupaban el norte y el oeste de la Península Ibérica.
• los celtíberos, que ocupaban el Valle del Ebro y la Meseta y estaban influenciados por la cultura íbera. 

 4. 1. Modo de vida.

• Vivían en poblados amurallados.
• Economía. Se basaba en:

1. Agricultura y ganadería nómada.
2. Tejido de la lana y cerámica.
3. Metalurgia del hierro.
4. El comercio tenía poca importancia y no usaban la moneda.

• Sociedad. Se organizaba en clanes unidos por lazos familiares que formaban tribus dirigidas por una casta guerrera.

4. 2. Cultura ibera y celtíbera.

A diferencia de los Celtas, los Celtíberos practicaban la escritura.
Rendían culto a las divinidades celtas y practicaban los ritos funerarios celtas (cremación).

4. 3. Arte celta.

Las principales manifestaciones del arte celta eran:

• Verracos: esculturas zoomórficas hechas de piedra. Eran esculturas simplificadas y sin muchos detalles.
• Joyas de oro y plata (torques, broches) y armas.
• Objetos con decoración geométrica o figuras animales, vegetales y humanas estilizadas.

Celtiberian writing.

Toros de Guisando.

5. LOS PUEBLOS IBEROS.

  La cultura ibérica era el resultado de la influencia de los colonizadores del Mediterráneo oriental en el este y el sur de la Península.

5. 1. Forma de vida.

  Los iberos vivían en ciudades fortificadas en lugares altos y con una fuente de agua cercana. Las casa eran rectangulares con muros de adobe y techos de paja.
  La economía ibera se basaba en:

• agricultura de secano (cerales, olivo, vid y verduras).
• agricultura de regadio.
• ganaderia (toros, bueyes, burros y caballos).
• artesania: tejido y cerámica.
• comercio basado en el uso del dinero.

  Los iberos se organizaban en tribus que compartían la misma lengua. La sociedad era jerarquica:

• una aristocracia guerrera.
• artisanos, mercaderes y soldados.
• granjeros, mineros, sirvientes, esclavos.

Cultura y religión.

  Los iberos usaban un alfabeto influenciado por los fenicios y los griegos.
  Tenían una religión animista: creían que los elementos eran espiritus; y adoraban a divinidades femeninas orientales.
  Enterraban a los muertos en necropolis situadas cerca de las ciudades.

6. ARTE IBÉRICO.

  Los iberos desarrollaron formas de arte muy ricas, pero las más representativas son las esculturas y relieves de piedra.

6. 1. Santuarios.

La mayoría de los santuarios iberos se caracterizaban por:

• situados en elevaciones del terreno.
• complejos grandes protegidos por muros, con variso patios y edificios.
• un pequeño templo con una habitación y un altar central.

 6. 2. Necropolis.

Tenían dos tipos de tumba:

• Tumbas subterráneas.
• En el sur, tumbas de corredor con lajas de piedra cubiertas con tumulos de tierra.

6. 3. Votive offerings.

A votive offering is a figurine in the form of a human or animal, offered to the deity for protection or assistance.

6. 4. Esculturas y relieves.

  Las principales características de la escultura ibera eran:

• clara influencia fenicia y griega.
• hechas de caliza y arenisca
• .policromadas.
• representaban figuras femeninas (damas), guerreros y animales reales e imaginarios.
• las figuras se caracterizan por el frontalismo y la inexpresividad.
• muy detalladas.

  Las damas eran figuras femeninas en forma de busto o de cuerpo entero.

Dama de Baza, MAN. File: File:Museo_Arqueológico_Nacional_-_1969-68-155-123A_-_Dama_de_Baza_01.jpg Author: Relanzón, Santiago (photo) License: BY-SA 4.0

Dama de Elche.

Bicha de Balazote, MAN. File:Museo_Arqueológico_Nacional_-_18529_-_Bicha_de_Balazote_01.jpg Author: http://www.man.es/man/home.html License: CC BY-SA 4.0

UNIT 11. COLONISATION AND PRE-ROMAN CIVILISATIONS.

1. THE ORIGIN OF THE IBERIAN AN CELTIC PEOPLES.

By the start of the 1st millenium BC the peoples of the Iberian Penisula were still living in the Bronze Age, but between the years 1.000 and 500 BC, peoples from northern Europe (indoeuropeans) and Eastern Mediterranean (phoenicians and greeks) came to the Iberian Peninsula. As a result, two large groups formed: the Iberians and the Celts

1. 1. The indo-european peoples.

The Indoeuropeans came from the great planes of Central Europe and crossed over the Pyreness between the 10th and 5th centuries BC.
How was their way of life:

• They worked with iron.
• and economy based on ceral cultivation and grazing.
• They cremated the dead and placed their ashes in urns.

 They reached the Peninsula in several waves, y a partir del siglo VIII a. c., ocuparon el Norte y el centro de la Península (celtas).

1. 2. Colonisation by the eastern mediterranean people.

During the 1st millenium BCpeoples from the Eastern Mediterranean founded colonies along the Mediterranean coast: greeks, phoenicians and carthaginians:

• The Phoenician were merchants that came from today's Lebanon . From the 11th to the 8th century BC, they controlled the trade in the Mediterranean Sea.
• Carthage was a phoenian colony in North Africa era una colonia fenicia, which in the 5th century BC became the dominat trade power in the Mediterranean Sea.

 1. 3. The formation of the celtic and iberian peoples.

Contact between the indigenous population and the new comers gave rise to the Celtic and Iberian Cultures.:

• In the East and South of the Peninsula, the influence of Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians gave rise to the Iberian culture.
• In the North and the Center, the influence of the indoeuropeans gave rise to the Celtic and Celtiberian cultures.

These pre-Romans peoples were inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula when the Roman arrived.

2. THE PHOENICIANS, GREEKS AND CARTHAGINIANS.

The colonisers brought new knowledge and technological advances to the Iberian Peninsula:

• Writing.
• New crops (olives and grapes), agricultural techniques and domestic animals (chickens and cats).
• The use of iron and mining techniques.
• Fish salting.
• Potter's wheel.
• Use of money.

2. 1. Phoenician and Greek colonisation.

• The Phoenicians settled in the south of the Iberian Peninsula. They founded Gadir (Cádiz) in 1.000 BC and other colonies in the south east.
• The Greeks came from the city of Phocaea in the 7th century and founded colonies on the east coast like Emporion.

The Phoenicians and the Greeks traded with the indigenous population. They exchanged metals and salted products for manufactured goods (textiles, jewellery and ceramics).

2. 2. The Carthaginians.

From the 5th BC the Carthaginians fought against the Greeks to control the Iberian Coast. Finally took control of the trade in metals (tin and silver) and fish salting factories.
In the 3th century, the carthaginians occupied the east coast and the south of the Iberian Peninsula to recruit soldiers and acquire metals to fight against Rome.

2. 3. Phoenician and Punic art.

The main characteristics of the Phoenician art were:

•  Egyptian and Assyrian influence.
• Rigid and forward-facing.
• Made in stone and bronze.
• Had a religious function.

3. Tartessos.

Between the years 1.000 y el 500 BC the tartessian civilization developed in the south of the Iberian Peninsula.  This civilization dissapeared as a result of the exhaustion of the mines and the Carthaginesian conquest.

3. 1. Tartessos and its area of influence.

Tartessos extended out to the west of Andalusia and south of Extremadura, although its centre was located in the provinces of Huelva, Seville and Cadiz.

3. 2. Economic importance.

• Tartessos was rich in silver, gold copper and iron mines and had workshops dedicated to the manufacture of metal objects.
• Play a key role in the Atlantic routes from Galicia and the British Isles which supplied the eastern mediterranean it tin, silver and lead.
• The trade with the Greeks and the Phoenicians, exchanging mineral products for luxury goods (perfumes, amber, ceramics and jewellery).

 3. 3. An aristocratic society.

• There were an aristocracy that controlled the kingdom's territory, trade and wealth.
• They had a writing system due to the Phoenician influence.
• They worshipped eastern gods.

4. THE CELTS AND THE CELTIBERIANS.

We have to distinguish between:

• celts who occupied the north and west of the Iberian Peninsula.
• celtiberians, who occupied the Ebro Valley and the Meseta and were very influenced by the Iberian culture.

4. 1. The way of live of the celts.

They lived in villages with walls and moats located near sources of water and arable land. The houses were circular and were made of adobe.
Their eonomy was self-sufficient. They were nomadic farmers who made ceramics, woven wool products and metal tools. They did not trade with other peoples and did not use money.
They were organised into family clans; several clans formed a tribe which occupied a territory.

4. 2. Celtics and celtiberian culture.

Unlike the Celts, the Celtiberian practised writing.
They worshiped the Celtic deities and the Celtic funeral rites (cremation).

4. 3. Celtic art.

The main celtic works of art were:

• Verracos: zoomorphic scultpures made from stone. Rough and simplified.
• Gold and silver jewellery (neckrings, brooches) and weapons.
• Objects with geometric decoration or stylised animal, plants or human figures.

Celtiberian writing.

Toros de Guisando.

5. IBERIAN PEOPLES.

The iberian culture was the result of the influence of the colonisers from eastern Mediterranean in the east and south of the Peninsula.

5. 1. Way of life.

 The iberians lived in fortified cities located in high places and near a water source. The houses were rectangular with adobe walls and roofs made of straw.
 The economy was based in:

• rain-fed farming (cerals, olives, grapes and vegetables).
• livestock farming (bulls, oxen, donkeys and horses).
• artisanship: weaving and ceramics.
• trade which resulted in the use of money.

The iberians were organised in traibes who shared the same languages. The society was hierarchical:

• a warrior-like aristocracy.
• artisans, merchants and soldiers.
• farmers, miners, servants, slaves.

Culture and religion.

The iberians used an alphabet influcenced by the Phoenicians and the Greeks.
They had an aminist religions: they believed that the elements had spirits and adopted female divinities from the East.
They buried their deads near their towns along funerary gods.

 

 

6. IBERIAN ART.

The iberians developed very rich art forms, but the most representative was the sculpture and stone relief.

6. 1. Shrines.

Most of the shrines were:

• located on high ground.
• large complexes with protective walls, couryards and several buildings.
• a small temple with one room and a central altar.

 6. 2. Necropoleis.

There were two types of tombs:

• Underground tombs with a stela pillar: a pillar base that support another pillar on top of it.
• In the south, chamber tombs covered with stone slabs.

6. 3. Votive offerings.

A votive offering is a figurine in the form of a human or animal, offered to the deity for protection or assistance.

6. 4. Sculptures and reliefs.

The main characteristics of the sculptures were:

• had a clear phoenician or greek influence.
• were made of sandstone or limestone.
• were polychrome.
• represented female figures (damas), warriors and real or imaginary animals.
• figures were forward-facing with a blank expression.
• were very detailed.

 The damas are female figures in the form of a bust (busto) or the whole body.

Dama de Baza, MAN. File: File:Museo_Arqueológico_Nacional_-_1969-68-155-123A_-_Dama_de_Baza_01.jpg Author: Relanzón, Santiago (photo) License: BY-SA 4.0

Dama de Elche.

Bicha de Balazote, MAN. File:Museo_Arqueológico_Nacional_-_18529_-_Bicha_de_Balazote_01.jpg Author: http://www.man.es/man/home.html License: CC BY-SA 4.0