UNIT 4. THE ATMOSPHERE. MANUEL DE FALLA 2018-201

HERE YOU HAVE A PART OF THE CONTENTS THAT ARE GOING TO BE A PART OF THE NEXT EXAM. REMEBER THAT YOU ALSO HAVE TO STUDY A PART OF THE UNIT 7. THE PREHISTORY.

 

1. THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS CHANGES.

1. 1. Functions and composition of the atmposphere.

Atmosphere: gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth.

Composition: is made up of water vapour and a mixture of gases:

• nitrogen, 78%
• oxygen, 21%
• ozone.
• carbon dioxide.

Its makes life on Earth possible because:

• it provides gases that are essentials to life (oxygen).
• it filters dangerous solar radiation
• it regulates the planet's temperature.
• it protects the planet from the impact of meteorites.

1. 1. Atmospheric phenomena. Weather and climate.

We have to distinguis between the atmospheric weather an the climate.

• Atmospheric weather is the state of the atmosphere over one place at a specific time. The weather is changeable and can be different every day. This is because the troposphere is divide into large air masses that are moving continuously over the Earth's surface.

The science that study the weather is meteorology.

• The climate is the average state of the atmosphere over one place during a long period ot time. It is calculated observing the succession of types of weather for at least thirty years. Is more stable than weather.

The science that study the various types of climate is climatology.

2. THE  ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE (I) TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION.

 2.1. The elements of climate.

Elements of climate: components of the atmosphere that can be measured. The main are:temperature, precipitation atmosheric pressure and wind.

Temperature and its factors.

Definition: temperature is the amount of heat in the air. It is measured in degrees Celsius (Cº), using a thermometer.

Temperature is determined by the following factors:

• Latitude. Between the Equator and the Tropics the temperature is always high because the rays of the Sun reach the Earth surface almost perpendicular, while in the Poles the solar rays reach the surface with an oblique angle.
• Altitude. The temperature drops 0.6ºC for every 100 metres above sea level, because the air is less dense and due to this conserves less heat.
• Distance from the sea. The sea waters change its temperature slower than the land, because of that temperatures are milder on the coast.Distance from the sea.

Also, we can distinguish different latitudinal thermal zones:

• One torrid zone, between the Equator and the Tropics.
• Two temperate zones, between the Tropics and the Polar Circles.
• Two frigid zones, around the Poles.

Isotherm: imaginary lines that connect locations with the same temperature in map.

Precipitation and its factors.

Precipitation: water that falls on the Earth's surface from the clouds, either in liquid (rain) or sold (snow and hail) forms.

It is meassured with a pluviometer and it is calculated in milimetres (mm).

There are several factors that determine precipitation:

• Latitude. Precipitation levels are higher at the equator.
• Altitude and terrain. Precipitation levels rise in relation to increase of altitude.
• Distance from the sea. Precipitation levels are higher on the coast because the sea is a constant source of humidity.

3. ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE (II). ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND WIND.

3. 1. Atmospheric pressure and its factors.

Definition.

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of a column of air on a place. It is meassured with a barometer and is expressed as millibars (mb).

The average atmospheric pressure meassured at sea level it is 1.013 mb, but the atmospheric pressure changes and it is higher or lower in different areas because of two factors:

• altitude, the higher the altitude, the smaller the volume and weight of the column of air over a location becomes.

• air temperature:

1.  cold air is denser and heavier, so its tends to fall. As a consequence, its warmed and produces dry and estable weather, and zones of high pressure known as anticyclones
2. warm air is lighter and less dense, so it tends to rise, then cools and produces precipitation. As a consequence produces zones of low pressure known as depressions.

Weather maps.

A weather map is a chart that represent meteorological conditions over a specific area at a specific time. In a weather map appear the following elements:

• isobars, lines that connect all the points of equal atmospheric pressure.
• anticyclones are represented with a capital A (usually are also represented with an H, high pressure). The wind moves between the isobars from left to right in the northern hemisphere and from right to left in the southern hemisphere.
• depressions are represented with a capital B  (usually are also represented with an L, low pressure). The wind moves between the isobars from rigth to left in the northern hemisphere and from left to right in the southern hemisphere.

• fronts, areas of contact between two air massess with different characteristics. Can be:

1. hot fronts, represented with a red line with semicircles.
2. cold fronts, represented with a blue line with triangles.
3. Occluded front, represented with a red line with semicircles and triangles (is the meeting of a hot and a cold front). In this case, the front is about to dissapear.

Wind and its factors.

Wind is the horizontal movement of air.

Measurement: 

• its speed is measured in kilometres per hour (km/h) or in metres per second (m/s), using a anemometer.
• its direction is determined by the cardinal point of the source of the wind: east wind, north wind. Is measured using a weather vane.

Wind is caused by the difference in atmospheric pressure. The wind blows from areas of high pressure towards areas of low pressure.

On Earth we are going to find:

• constants winds that maintain an equilibrium of temperatures, transporting hot air towards the cold zones and vice versa. The most important are the trade winds (in spanish: alisios) which goes from the Tropics to the Equator, the west winds and the polar winds.
• seasonal winds, such as the monsoons (in spanish: monzones) in South East Asia
• daily winds, such as marine and mountains breezes (in spanish: brisas).

 

4. THE BIOCLIMATIC ZONES. VEGETATION.

The climate and climatic zone.

The combination of the temperature, precipitation, amospheric pressure and wind creates the different climatic zones. A climatic zone is a division of the climate of the Earth according to average temperatures and average rainfall (precipitation level). We can distinguish the following climatic zones:

• Torrid zone, which includes the equatorial and tropical climates.
• The northern and southern temperate zones, which includes the mediterranean, oceanic and continental climates.
• The northern and southern frigid zones which includes the polar climates.

Also appear azonal climates that can be found in different regions: deserts and mountains.

Vegetation and biosphere.

Vegetation: is the entire range of plant life in an área. It is a part of the biosphere.

Biosphere: is the combination of all living beings on the planet and the enviroment they live in. It is formed by the troposphere, the Hydrosphere and the litosphere.
The main characteristic of the biosphere is its enormous diversity of plant and animal species (biodiversity). Plants are organised in vegetal formations.
A vegetal formation is the combination of plants in a región that are similar in size of characteristics. We can distinguish three types of vegetal formations:

• Forest areas are formed by trees. A tree is a plant which has a clearly defined trunk and is tall (usually more than 8 metres of height).
• Scrubland consist of bushes. Bushes are smaller than trees and have not trunk. Its branches divide at ground level.
• Grasslands consists of grasses.

The distribution of the vegetation is conditioned by numerous factors:

• the relief
• the soil
• the climate (humidity, light, temperatura and wind).

The Earth's bioclimates.

Earth is divided in several bioclimatic enviorments or bioclimates. A bioclimate is a extensive región characterised by its own climatic features and vegetation. We can distinguish three major bioclimates:

• the torrid bioclimate.
• the temperate bioclimate.
• the frigid bioclimate.

Weather map.

ELEMENT OF CLIMATE	DEVICE	UNIT
TEMPERATURE	Thermometer	Degrees celsius
PRECIPITATION	Pluviometer	Milimeters or mm
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE	Barometer	Milibars.
WIND	Anemometer	Meters per second or kilometers per hour

 

UNIT 7. PREHISTORY. MANUEL DE FALLA 2018-2019

1. AGES AND SOURCES OF PREHISTORY.

Time and the science of history.

History: the science that studies humanity's past. 

History studies all the aspects of human life:

• politics.
• economy
• society.
• culture.
• art.

Division of history.

To facilitate its study, we divided History into periods of variable lengths, separated by key events. The most importan are:

• eras. There are two of them:

1. Prehistory, the period of time from the apparition of the first human being to the invention of writing.
2. History, from the invention of writing to present day.

• We divide eras into shorter periods of time, known as ages.

-Prehistory is divided into two ages:

1. Stone Age, from the apparition of the first hominids (4,4 million years ago) to the invention of metal tools (4.500 B. C.).
2. Metal Age, from the invention of metal tools (4.500 B. C.) to the invention of writing (3.250 B. C.).

-History is divided into four ages:

1. Ancient, from the invention of writing (3. 250 B. C.) to the fall of the Roman Empire (476 A. D.).
2. Middle, from the fall of the Roman Empire to the discovery of America (476 A. D.-1492 A. D.)
3. Modern, from the discovery of America to the French Revolution (1492 A. D.-1789 A. D.)
4. Contemporary, from the French Revolution to the present day (1789 A. D.-?).

The division of prehistory.

Prehistory is the period of time from the apparition of the first human beings (4,4 million years) to the invention of writing (3.250 B.C). We can divide it into two ages:

• Stone Age, tools were made of stone. We can distinguish:

1. Paleolithic (literally, Old Stone) from 4,4 million years ago to 10.000 B. C. Tools were carved from stone.
2. Neolithic (literally, New Stone) from 10.000 B. C. to 4.500 B. C. Tools were made of polished stone.

• Metal Age, tools were made of metal, from 4. 500 B. C. to between 3. 250 B. C. (in the Fertile Crescent) and 1. 000 B. C. (in other parts of the World). We can distinguish three periods according to the metal used:

1. Cooper Age (3. 250 B. C.-2. 200 B. C.)
2. Bronze Age. (2. 200 B. C.-1. 500 B. C.)
3. Iron Age. (1. 500 B. C.-1. 000 B. C.)

The sources for prehistory.

In order to the study prehistory our sources are:

• the remains left behind by primitive human beings: humans (bones) and material (tools, pottery).
• the remains of animal or plants of their time.

Most of this remains are buried, because of that is necessary to carry out archeological excavations.

An archaelogical excavation is a slow and expensive digging to recover remains buried underground.

It is composed of several stages:

1. Division of the site into a grid.
2. Excavation of the site.
3. Creation of a file for each object: number, description, site coordinates.
4. Dating of the remains: the lower strata are older than the upper ones.

2. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEINGS.

The problem of our origin.

• Until modern times was though that human beings has appeared over this planet in the current form.
• In the XIX century, the theory of the evolution was developed by Charles Darwin. According to it, human beigns evolved from primates, a type of mammals which appeared 65 million years ago. 
• Five million years ago, primates started to evolve into two different direcctions:

1.  On the one hand appeared the pongids: chimpanzee, orangutan, gorilla.
2. On the the other, appeared the hominids, our direct ancestors.

Hominisation process.

There were three biological changes that made hominids different from the rest of the large simians:

• A biped mode of walking. The position of their hip and the extension of their pelvis allow them to took firm steps and large strides.  As a consequence, their hands were freed from the act of walking to use for other purposes.
• Developed and opossable thumbs (far more efficient that the one belonging to pongids). That made possible to easily manipulate objects and therefore, developing tools.
• As a consequence, the brain and skull size increased, increasing their intelligence. This made possible:

1. though
2. speech
3. formation of complex societies.

Increase of the brain size.

Opposable thumb. Comparision of a human and a chimpanzee hand. Our thumbs are far more developed than the thumbs of the apes and this allow us to build complex tools.

Human evolution and its stages.

Definition: hominisation was the long evolutive process trough which the hominids adquired their own unique features.

Chronology: this process took place in Africa between seven and 4 million yeas ago.

Causes: a climatic change that made the african climate a lot drier. As a consquence big extensions of tropical rainforest were transformed into treeless savannah, and the primates of this zones were forced to leave the trees and descend to the ground in order to look for new food sources.

We can distinguish several stages in this process:

• First, in Africa, the oldest hominids, which were very similar to the other primates, appeared:

1. Ardiphitecus, about 4,4 million years ago. It was perhaps the first hominid that can walk upright, fed on fruits and could climb trees. He lived in Africa.
2. Australophitecus, about 4, 2 million years ago. The first hominid that used tools but did not make them. He lived in Africa

•  Later, appeared the Homo genus: hominid classified as humans due to their appearance and toolmaking skills. We can distinguish:

1. Homo Habilis, appeared 2, 4 million years ago. Considered the first human beign. First hominid who can make tools. He lived in Africa.
2. Homo Erectus, appeared 1, 8 million yeas ago. First hominid to leave Africa, he lived in Africa, Asia and Europe (the oldest european remains appeared 800.000 years ago). First hominid to use fire.
3. Homo Neanderthalensis. Lived between 200.000 and 35.000 years ago. He lived in Europe and the Middle East during the glacial period. He took refugee in caves and was the first hominid to bury their deads.
4. Homo Sapiens, appeared in Africa 195.000 years ago. They made tools from stone an bone and created the firsts art forms. They also extended across almost all the continents.

Australopithecus Afarensis, the first hominid.

Homo habilis, the first human and the first hominid able that made tools.

Chopper, a tool made by the Homo Habilis.

Homo Erectus, the first homnid that was able to use fire.

Handaxe, a tool made by an Homo Erectus.

Homo Neanderthalensis. File:MEH_Homo_neanderthalensis_29-04-2012_11-39-17_2592x3888.JPG  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Nachosan

Facial reconstruction of an early Homo Sapiens (our own species) found in Romania. File:Neanderthaler,_Oase,_Rumänien_(Daniela_Hitzemann).jpg Daniela Hitzemann - Pressebilder Neanderthal Museum, Mettmann CC BY-SA 4.0

Homo Sapiens from different parts of Earth. File:Human_races_according_to_Coon_(collage).jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Magdalenian bone needles. Homo Sapines were able to make very specialized and complex tools using bone or antler. File:Aiguille_os_246.1_Global.jpg Author. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Archaeodontosaurus License: CC BY-SA 4.0

3. LIFE DURING THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD.

Palaeolithic is the first period of the Prehistory that started 4. 4. million years ago and ended 10.000 years B. C.

Economy.

Paleolitic people lived in a wide variety of enviorments (torrid climates, frigid), life was very difficult and human beings had to use most of their time to find food or reefuge. The main characteristics of their way of life were:

• Predatory economy (they took resources from Nature without replacing them). They obtained resources through:

1. hunting (deers, reindeers, bisons, horses and mammoths).

1. fishing

1. food gathering (roots and fruits).

Apart from food, from their preys they obtained clothes (fat, tendons and hides) footwear (leather) and bones (tolos). We talk about a predatory economy, because

• Nomadic life. Primitive human beings did not live in one place, instead they had to move constantly to follow their preys:

1. During the summers they lived in huts made of branches and hides, located close to rivers.
2. During the winters they sought shelters in natural caves.

Technological contributions and inventions:

The main technological advances of the Paleolithic were:

• Stone tools, using the stonecarving technique:

1. You strike one stone against another to make axes or bifaces, arrow heads and knives 
2. The pieces that came away were used as knives, scrapers… 
3. They also used bones and antlers to produce harpoons, fish hooks and needles.

 Fire, was important because: 

1. it provided light and heat inside the caves. 
2. it frightened savage animals. 
3. It could be used to cook food and dry animal hides. 
4. It favoured social relations: around a fire, people shaerd their daily activities and asigned duties to one another.  

Tribal society.

Humans lived in groups of about 20 or 30 people who were linked by family ties (tribes). It is thought that some members of the group had a greater importance:

• the shaman or healer.
• the strongest hunter.

Beliefs.

Today is believed that there were three forms of religious beliefs:

1. Belief in the power of natural elements: the Sun, the Moon, the stars, etc. 
2. Magic rituals to influence natural forces.  
3. Veneration of the dead that were buried along with food and weapons. This indicate a belief in a life after death.

 

 

 

 

 

Paleolithic tent. During the Paelolithic period Humans were nomad and lived in caves or huts made of branches.

 

 

Paleolithic art.

There were two main forms of art during the Paleolithic period:

• Portable art, with the following characteristics:

1. Were moveable objects.  
2. Made on stone, bone and ivory decorated with reliefs.  
3. The main examples were: engraved sticks, weapons and pendants; Venus small statues of women which acentuated feminine attributes.

• Cave painting, appeared 40.000 years ago. These painting has appeared all across Europe, from Gibraltar to Siberia, but about an 80% has been discovered in France and the Iberian Peninsula.

 Their main characteristics were:

1. located on the walls and ceillings of caves.
2.  Represented animals (bisons, horses, mammoths, deers) with a high degree of realism, schematically drawn human beings and symbols such as hands or vulvas. 
3.  Were polychrome. They made pygments mixing animal fat with natural substances such as iron oxide (red), charcoal (black) and earth (ochre). They applied colours using their fingers or blowing the pigment through bird bones.

Charcoal.

Iron oxide.

Cave Painting, Lascaux.

Woolly rhinos, Chauvet cave.

Venus of Willendorf.

4. THE NEOLITHIC.

Chronology.

The Neolithic period started around 10.000 B. C. and ended about 4.500  B. C. with the apparition of metalworking.

 Where and why.

10.000 B.C. ago, the last glaciar period ended with a climatic change and a rise in the atmospheric temperatures. As a consequence, there was less food and paleolithic groups had to find new ways to find food, developing agriculture and livestock farming.

These changes that started the Neolithic period took place in the Fertile Crescent, a half-moon shaped region extending from the rivers Tigris and Euphrates to the Nile. From there spread to Europe, India and China

Economy.

The main two characteristics of the Neolithic were the apparition of the productive economy and the sedentary way of life. These changes are so important that we call it, the Neolithic Revolution:

• Productive economy, was based in agriculture and livestock farming:

1. Agriculture appeared when people discovered that seeds which fell to the ground grew into new plants. The first domesticated plants were cereals such as wheat and rice.
2. Livestock farming, appeared when they started to confining animals  (sheep, goats, pigs and oxen) in pens to use then as a meat source, instead of hunting. 

• Sedentary way of life. In order to take care of their fields of crops and herds, farmers adopted a sedentary way of life with two main consequences:

1. Apparition of hamlets, located on the banks of the rivers. First they were made of bamboo cabins reinforced with clay and later stone and adobe house. 
2. Apparition of different trades, along with farmers and herdsmen, craftsmen that made tools that exchanged for food, for example potters and weavers.

New inventions.

The main inventions of the Neolithic period were:

• Development of the grinding or polishing tecnique to make stone tools. This technique has several advantages:

1. Eliminated rough edges.
2. Made stone more resistant.
3. Allow to make new tools, necessary to carry out agricultural tasks such as hoes, sickles, pestles and mortars.

•  Pottery was made by hand from clay then baked in a fire. It was used to store and cook food.
• Woven textiles were made from linen and wool and were woven in looms.

Society.

The productive economy the following social changes:

1. Enormous increase in the population.
2. Apparition of rulers who coordinated defence, water use and collective works. Over time, they became political authorities.
3. Apparition of social inequalities with different social groups distinguished by their wealth and labour.

 Religious beliefs.

 The main religious rites were dedicated to:

1. astrological entities, which guided the sowing and harvesting.
2. the mother goddess, who ensured the fertility.
3. the dead.

The most important art form was decorated pottery.

Polished stone tools.

Polished stone axes. File:Hache_222.1_Global_fond.jpg Author: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Archaeodontosaurus License: CC BY-SA 4.0

Reconstruction of a Neolithic house. File:Archodrom Beaune 10.jpg https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilisateur:Christophe.Finot
Attribution ShareAlike 2.5

Neolithic pottery.

Potter. License: GFLD

Reconstruction of a neolithic loom. File:VerticalLoom.JPG Author: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:CristianChirita License: CC BY-SA 3.0

5. COPPER, BRONZE AND IRON AGES.

Chronology.

The Metal Age started around 4. 500 BC with the discovery of metallurgy and ended between 3.250 BC and 1.000 BC, according to the date of the invetion of writing which supposed the start of history.

Economy.

Metalworking.

• The first metal use in metalworking was copper, starting around 4. 500 B. C. in the cities of the Fertile Crescent. Due to its limited durability was mostly used for adornments.
• Around 2.200 BC, they started to use bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, harder and which can be used to make a greater variety of tools.
• Around 1.500 BC, iron production was dicover around the Black Sea área, but its expansión was slow due to the advantage which gave to the peoples that used it.

 Other economic activities.

• As during the Neolithic, agriculture and livestock farming provided the basis for the economy. 
• Artisan production was very important also: wool textiles and pottery.
• Trade developed between the Fertile Crescent and Central Europe in order to exchange metal and another products. 

New techniques, instruments and inventions.

Metalworking techniques. 

We can distinguish several stages in the metalworking process:

• First metal was worked in a cold state, by striking it with a hammer.
  
• Casting: process, in which metal was heated in a foundry until it melted. Then liquid metal is poured into a mold, that contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to cool and solidify.
• Forge: metal was heated in a fire (forge) while it was hammered.
• Finally, once cooled the items were polished.

New tools.

• agricultural tools: hoes, sickles.
• weapons: swords, spears, axes, shields
• domestic utensils: jugs and bowls.

 The main inventions of the metal ages were:

• The wheel that enabled the invention of:

1. The cart. 
2. the potter's wheel.

•  The plough that enabled the ground to be worked more efficiently. 

•  The sail. 

Society.

• Population increased and as a consequence settlements grew.
• Most of the settlements were surrounded by walls, due to the apparition of wars between different peoples in order to control metal sources.
• Society became more complex with the apparition of new roles such as metalworkers, traders.
• Also, some human groups managed to control others due to their knowledge of metalworking.

 Art.

Now, the first forms of architecture appeared, known as megalithic monuments, made of large stones or megaliths. We can distinguish the following types of megalithic monuments:

• Menhirs, large stones placed vertically in the ground. We don't know its function: worship of the Sun, mark territory, to stop the souls of the dead roaming. When they were set out in a row, we talk about a stone row. 
• Dolmens, chambers formed of large vertical stones roofed over with horizontal stones. When there was a long trabeated corridor, we talk about a corrido tomb. They were usually used as tombs.
• Cromlechs, or stone circles, formed of a number of menhirs placed in a circle. We think that there were sanctuaries for an agrarian or solar cult. 

Menhir.

 6. PREHISTORY IN SPAIN.

Paleolithic (800.000-5.000  B.C.)

The first human beigns appeared in the Iberian Peninsula 800.000 years ago during the Lower Palaeolithic Period). They have been found in the Atapuerca site (Burgos). The remains belonged to an erectus-type human species, called Homo Antecesssor. They were:

1. Hunter-gatherers and made stone tools.
2. Practised cannibalism.

During the Upper Palaeolithic Period, the Peninsula was inhabited by Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens. The Homo Sapiens left us important examples of cave painting. We can distinguish two varieties:

• Cantabrian area (Altamira) with two main characteristics:

1. Appeared inside caves.
2. Represented animals in a naturalistic manner.

•  Eastern Spain (Cogull, Valltorta). Two characteristics:

1. Located in rock shelters.
2. Represented schematic human beigns involved in scenes of hunting war, and rituals.

Neolithic (5.000 b. c.-2.500 b.c.)

• The Neolithic reached the Iberian Peninsula through two routes:

1. the Mediterranean
2. the North of Africa.

• The most important cultures appeared in Catalonia and Andalucia, and the main art form was Cardium pottery.

 Copper, Bronze and Iron ages.

Metalworking was introduced in the Iberian Peninsula from the Eastern Mediterranean by people looking for metal. We can distinguish three stages:

• Copper age (2.500-2.000 b.c.). The most important culture was "Los Millares" (Almeria) with two characteristics:

1. Apparition of walled settlements.
2. Megalithic architecture: dolmens and large corridor tombs, called "caves".

•  Bronze Age (2.000 b.c.-1.000 b.c.). The most important cultures were:

1. El Argar extended from Almeria to Granada and characterised by individuals burials in earthenware vessels.
2. Balearic islands characterised by its megalithic constructions: taulas, talaiot (use as defensive watchtower) and naveta (collective tomb).  

• Iron Age (1.000-Roman colonization). Iron was introduced by:

1.  the Celtic people who entered through the Pyrenees
2. Phoenic and Greek colonists.